EU Residency & Citizenship Pathways for US Citizens

Last updated: October 16, 2026

Key Takeaways

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• EU residency, EU long-term residence, and EU citizenship create three distinct tiers of rights for non-EU nationals, from living in a single country to full bloc-wide free movement.
• US citizens who want a non-relocation Plan B typically find the Portugal Golden Visa the most practical route, because it requires only 14 days in Portugal every two years while still leading to permanent residency and, under the new framework, citizenship after 10 years of legal residence.
• Among active programs, Portugal offers a citizenship path without mandatory relocation, while Greece requires seven years of full-time residence and tax payments, and Spain’s Golden Visa program closed to new applicants in April 2025.
• US citizens remain subject to worldwide taxation and must still comply with FBAR, FATCA, and related reporting; the Portugal Golden Visa alone does not create Portuguese tax residency for holders who only meet the minimum stay requirement.
• VIDA Capital connects US investors with the VIDA Fund, an asset-backed hospitality investment that satisfies the €500,000 Portugal Golden Visa threshold while focusing on capital preservation and a transparent, concierge-style advisory experience.

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Secure your EU residency and a path to EU citizenship with a Portugal Golden Visa.

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The Three Tiers Of EU Status: Residency, Long-Term Residence, And Citizenship

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Three legally distinct statuses define what a non-EU national can do inside Europe, and each tier unlocks a different level of rights.

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Tier 1 — National Residence Permit. A permit issued by one member state grants the right to live in that country only. A Portugal Golden Visa, for example, allows the holder to live, study, and work in Portugal and to travel visa-free across the 29-country Schengen Area for up to 90 days in any 180-day period. It does not grant the right to live, work, or study in France, Germany, or any other Schengen country.

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Tier 2 — EU Long-Term Resident Status. After five years of legal, continuous residence in a member state, a third-country national may apply for EU long-term resident status under Council Directive 2003/109/EC. This status is permanent, subject to loss rules, and grants the right to reside in a second member state for more than three months. The second state may still require a separate residence permit and proof of resources. Tier 2 is broader than a national permit but still falls short of full EU free movement.

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Tier 3 — EU Citizenship. Under Article 21 TFEU and Directive 2004/38/EC, EU citizens hold a Treaty-based right to move and reside freely across all member states. No visa, work permit, or separate residence permit is required. Once a Portugal Golden Visa holder naturalizes as a Portuguese citizen, they gain full access to live, work, study, and access public healthcare and education in any EU or Schengen Zone country.

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The Portugal Golden Visa is one of the few European programs that offers a path to EU citizenship without relocation. Investors can maintain eligibility with 14 days in Portugal every two years, which appeals to families who want a credible Plan B while keeping their current lifestyle.

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Compare EU residency and mobility solutions for US citizens with VIDA Capital.

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How We Compare EU Residency And Mobility Solutions For US Citizens

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The comparison below uses four core criteria for each pathway so you can see the trade-offs clearly.

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• Minimum Capital Required: The lowest qualifying investment or income threshold to enter the program.
• Investment Vehicle And Risk Profile: Where the capital goes, such as a regulated fund, property, or passive income, and the associated risk of principal loss.
• Residency Obligations: The minimum physical presence required to maintain status.
• Path To Citizenship: Whether the program leads to naturalization and under what timeline.

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Primary EU Residency Pathways For US Citizens

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Portugal D7 Visa. The D7 Passive Income Visa serves non-EU nationals with stable recurring passive income, such as pensions, dividends, rental income, or royalties, who intend to make Portugal their primary home. For 2026, the main applicant must demonstrate at least €920 per month. The D7 requires habitual residence, with absence limits of six consecutive months or eight non-consecutive months per permit period. It leads to permanent residency after five years and, under the current framework, citizenship after ten years of residence, or seven for CPLP and EU nationals. This route suits applicants who genuinely want to relocate at a lower upfront cost.

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Digital Nomad Visa. Portugal’s digital nomad visa targets remote workers with active foreign income. Applicants must show proof of employment or self-employment with a non-Portuguese entity and sufficient income. Like the D7, it functions as a relocation visa with meaningful physical presence expectations. It fits individuals whose work is location-independent and who plan to live in Portugal full-time.

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Portugal Golden Visa. The Golden Visa, formally the Autorização de Residência para Atividade de Investimento (ARI), requires a minimum investment of €500,000 through eligible regulated investment funds. The program grants legal EU residency with a minimum physical stay of 14 days every two years, which suits investors who prefer not to relocate. US citizens now rank as the top nationality applying for Portugal’s Golden Visa, surpassing Chinese and Turkish applicants. The program leads to permanent residency at year five and, under the approved but not yet in-force framework, citizenship after 10 years of legal residence, or seven for CPLP and EU nationals.

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Mobility And Travel Rights For US Citizens In Europe

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The Schengen 90/180 rule limits visa-free visitors, including US citizens traveling as tourists, to 90 days within any 180-day period across the 29-country Schengen Area. A national residence permit removes the 90/180 cap only for the issuing country; travel to other Schengen countries still follows the standard limit.

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A Portugal Golden Visa holder may live, study, and work in Portugal and travel visa-free to any Schengen country for up to 90 days in any 180-day period. The permit does not grant the right to live, work, or study in other Schengen countries. EU long-term resident status, earned after five years of legal residence, opens a conditional right to reside in a second member state. EU citizenship, earned through naturalization, removes those conditions and grants full free movement across the bloc.

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New EU Travel Rules For US Citizens (EES And ETIAS)

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Two new systems now affect US citizens traveling to Europe as short-stay visitors. The EU Entry/Exit System (EES) has been fully operational across all 29 Schengen countries since April 10, 2026, recording biometric and travel data at external borders for non-EU short-stay visitors. Holders of a valid EU residence permit present that permit at the border and are not processed as short-stay visitors under EES.

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The European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) is scheduled to launch in the last quarter of 2026. Once operational, US citizens traveling to the Schengen Area as short-stay visitors will need to obtain an ETIAS travel authorization before departure. Holders of a valid residence permit issued pursuant to Council Regulation (EC) No 1030/2002 by any European country requiring ETIAS, except Cyprus, do not need an ETIAS travel authorisation and may travel on that permit; permits issued by Cyprus or Ireland do not exempt their holders.

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With these mobility rules in place, the next step is choosing the residency program that matches your travel and citizenship goals.

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Understand your EU mobility rights as a US citizen.

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Head-To-Head Comparison: Portugal Golden Visa Vs. D7 Vs. Greece Vs. Spain

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Portugal Golden Visa

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• Minimum Capital: €500,000 into a regulated investment fund.
• Investment Vehicle And Risk: Diversified regulated fund exposure, with risk tied to underlying assets and fund strategy.
• Residency Obligation: 14 days every two years, which remains light compared to other European programs.
• Path To Citizenship: Available after 10 years of legal residence for most applicants, or seven years for CPLP and EU nationals, under the approved new framework.
• Key Advantage: Strong Plan B that allows investors to keep their current base while building a path to an EU passport.
• Key Trade-Off: Capital stays committed to the fund for at least five years, and the new citizenship framework introduces longer timelines once in force.

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Portugal D7 Visa

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• Minimum Capital: No large lump-sum investment, but passive income of at least €920 per month is required.
• Investment Vehicle And Risk: Relies on existing income streams rather than a new investment product.
• Residency Obligation: Habitual residence in Portugal, with limited allowable absences.
• Path To Citizenship: Available after 10 years of legal residence, or seven for CPLP and EU nationals, provided the applicant has genuinely lived in Portugal.
• Key Advantage: Lower upfront capital requirement for full-time movers.
• Key Trade-Off: Functions as a relocation route with full Portuguese tax residency.

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Greece Golden Visa

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• Minimum Capital: €400,000 to €800,000 in qualifying property depending on region, under Law 5100/2024.
• Investment Vehicle And Risk: Direct property ownership, with exposure to local real estate market conditions and management responsibilities.
• Residency Obligation: No minimum stay for permit renewal, but citizenship requires long-term presence.
• Path To Citizenship: Available only after seven years of full-time physical residence and tax payments in Greece.
• Key Advantage: Flexible stay requirement for residency and a large, active program.
• Key Trade-Off: Citizenship effectively requires relocation, and property investments carry liquidity and management considerations.

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Spain

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• Program Status: Spain formally terminated its Golden Visa program on April 3, 2025 under Organic Law 1/2025. No new applications are accepted. US investors who had planned to use the Spanish route must now redirect to another program. Existing permit holders retain their rights subject to applicable renewal conditions.

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Among active options, Portugal offers the clearest citizenship path without relocation, while Greece suits investors who prioritize property and residency but accept that citizenship requires living there. Spain no longer accepts new Golden Visa applicants.

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See how the Portugal Golden Visa compares for US investors.

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Why Portugal's Golden Visa Is The Strongest Plan B For HNW Investors

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VIDA Capital has seen a 571% increase in American traffic since January, with California and Florida residents leading Golden Visa inquiries, followed by Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Washington. As Alex Ohnona, Founding Partner at VIDA Capital, has noted: "Modern portfolio theory has long shown that concentrated positions create unnecessary risk. Now, affluent Americans are extending that logic beyond investment accounts to global mobility."

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The Portugal Golden Visa’s light stay requirement allows investors and their families to keep their existing lives in the US while building a legally recognized path to EU residency and, eventually, EU citizenship. According to the Henley Passport Index 2026 April Global Ranking, Portugal's passport is ranked 5th globally, tied with Austria, Greece, and Malta, with visa-free access to 184 destinations, and Portugal ranks as the 7th safest country in the world according to the Global Peace Index 2025.

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Family Inclusion. A single €500,000 investment can cover the main applicant’s spouse or common-law partner, with proof such as a marriage certificate or other evidence of relationship. Dependent children who are full-time students, unmarried, and not working may remain on the application throughout the residency program. Dependent parents aged 65 or older, or financially dependent parents under 65, may also be included. No additional investment is required per family member, although separate government fees apply.

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Citizenship Timeline. Portugal’s Parliament approved a new citizenship framework in October 2025 that introduces longer timelines, though the law has not yet entered into force and remains subject to final approval. Once implemented, it is expected to extend the residency requirement to 10 years for most applicants, or seven years for CPLP and EU nationals. According to legal analysis from CCLex, the new law is expected to apply to future applicants once formally enacted, while those who had already submitted their citizenship application before its publication should remain under the previous framework.

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The VIDA Fund. VIDA Capital connects investors to the VIDA Fund, an asset-backed investment in Portugal’s hospitality industry. The VIDA Fund acquires and revitalizes undervalued hospitality businesses, giving these assets a “second life.” It follows an integrated owner-operator approach. Portugal’s Golden Visa program has raised more than $7.2 billion since its creation in 2012. By June 2025, AIMA reported a 72% increase in Golden Visa approvals, with Americans as the main recipients. The VIDA Fund’s asset-backed structure ties invested capital to physical hospitality assets with intrinsic value, which supports capital preservation compared to more speculative vehicles. Historical returns are not a guarantee of future returns.

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Build your Portugal Golden Visa Plan B with VIDA Capital.

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Step-By-Step Portugal Golden Visa Process With Emphasis On Legal Counsel

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Working with a qualified lawyer at every stage of the Portugal Golden Visa process reduces delays and avoids costly errors. The documentation requirements, AIMA procedures, and investment compliance rules are detailed, so experienced legal guidance matters. VIDA Capital can connect investors with trusted, specialized law firms that handle this process regularly.

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The overall process usually spans 12 to 18 months from application to residency card issuance. Because card issuance often takes close to a year, many investors complete only one renewal during the five-year temporary residency period.

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1. Pre-Application. Start by choosing a law firm, because your lawyer will coordinate most of the setup. With their help, you obtain your Portuguese tax number (NIF) remotely and open a Portuguese bank account, also remotely. Once those are in place, you select your investment and commit €500,000 to a qualifying regulated fund such as the VIDA Fund.
2. Submit Your Application. Your lawyer submits the initial application online through AIMA’s portal for you and your family members. After AIMA approves the request, you attend an in-person appointment for biometric data collection for all applicants.
3. Residency Card — Year 1. The initial residency card is valid for two years. During this period, you and your family members may travel visa-free within the Schengen Area and live, study, and work in Portugal.
4. First Renewal — Year 2. You prove continued ownership of the VIDA Fund investment and confirm that investment conditions remain in place. You also demonstrate the required minimum stay over the prior two-year period, retake biometrics, and provide updated criminal records.
5. Second Renewal — Year 4. You meet the same requirements as the first renewal. Depending on when your initial card was issued, you may reach the five-year mark with only one renewal.
6. Permanent Residency — Year 5. After five years of legal temporary residence, you may apply for permanent residency. At that point, the investment requirement no longer governs your right to remain in Portugal.
7. Citizenship — Year 10 (Or Year 7 For CPLP And EU Nationals). Under the approved but not yet in-force framework, most US citizens will become eligible to apply for Portuguese citizenship after 10 years of legal residence. Portugal permits dual citizenship, so applicants generally keep their US nationality.

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Get guided through the Portugal Golden Visa process.

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Tax And Compliance Essentials For US Citizens

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US citizens are taxed on worldwide income regardless of where they live. Holding a Portugal Golden Visa does not exempt a US citizen from US federal tax obligations. Two primary relief mechanisms can reduce double taxation.

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The Foreign Earned Income Exclusion (FEIE) allows qualifying US citizens living abroad to exclude a portion of foreign earned income from US taxation. For tax year 2026, the exclusion is $132,900. To qualify, the taxpayer must have a foreign tax home and meet either the bona fide residence test or the physical presence test, which requires 330 full days in a foreign country in any 12-month period. A Golden Visa holder who spends only short periods in Portugal will not meet these tests based on Portugal alone.

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The Foreign Tax Credit (FTC) reduces US tax on foreign-source income dollar for dollar by qualified foreign income taxes paid. It does not reduce US tax on US-source income. The FTC often proves more relevant for Golden Visa holders who remain primarily US-based.

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The Golden Visa grants residency rights only in Portugal, not across the European Union. Holding the permit does not by itself trigger Portuguese tax residency. Under Portuguese tax law, residency is triggered by spending more than 183 days in Portugal within a rolling 12-month period or by maintaining a habitual home there. Most Golden Visa holders who follow the minimum stay requirement will not become Portuguese tax residents.

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US investors in Portuguese funds must also comply with FBAR (FinCEN Form 114) and FATCA (Form 8938) reporting requirements when thresholds are met. Professional tax advice from an advisor experienced in US-Portugal cross-border taxation is strongly recommended before investing.

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Guided Decision Framework

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Your ideal pathway depends on goals, budget, time horizon, and comfort with paperwork and relocation. The points below help narrow the field.

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Best Fit: Portugal Golden Visa Via The VIDA Fund

• You want a credible EU residency and citizenship pathway without relocating.
• You have €500,000 available for a five-year fund commitment.
• Capital preservation matters more than liquidity during the holding period.
• You want to include your spouse, children, or parents in the same application.
• You value a personalized, concierge-level advisory experience with clear fee disclosure.
• You prefer an asset-backed investment tied to tangible hospitality assets rather than more speculative equity.

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Best Fit: Portugal D7 Visa

• You have stable passive income of at least €920 per month and want to relocate to Portugal full-time.
• You do not have €500,000 available for a fund investment.
• You are comfortable becoming a Portuguese tax resident.

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Not Recommended: Spain

• Spain’s Golden Visa program closed on April 3, 2025, and no new applications are accepted.

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Consider Carefully: Greece Golden Visa

• You are comfortable with a property-based investment of €400,000 to €800,000 depending on region.
• You do not require a citizenship path without relocation, because Greece expects seven years of residence and tax payments for naturalization.

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Investors who prioritize capital preservation, asset-backed structures, and a high-touch advisory relationship often find that VIDA Capital and the VIDA Fund provide a clear and transparent route to the Portugal Golden Visa. See also: EU Golden Visa Mobility: Portugal Vs Greece For US Families.

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Find your best-fit EU residency route with VIDA Capital.

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Frequently Asked Questions

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Can A US Citizen Become An EU Citizen?

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Yes. A US citizen can become an EU citizen through naturalization in a member state. Portugal offers one of the more accessible routes. After the qualifying period of legal residence, which will be 10 years for most US citizens under the approved but not yet in-force framework, an applicant may apply for Portuguese citizenship. Portugal permits dual citizenship, so applicants generally keep their US nationality. Portuguese citizenship confers full EU citizenship rights, including the right to live, work, study, and access public healthcare and education in any EU or Schengen Zone country.

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What Is An EU Resident Card?

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An EU resident card is a permit issued by one member state granting the right to live in that country. It is not a bloc-wide mobility document. A Portugal Golden Visa card, for example, allows the holder to live, study, and work in Portugal and to travel visa-free across the Schengen Area for up to 90 days in any 180-day period. It does not grant the right to live or work in other EU countries. EU long-term resident status, earned after five years of legal residence, provides a conditional right to reside in a second member state, while full free movement across the bloc is reserved for EU citizens.

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Do US Citizens Need EES For Europe?

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The EU Entry/Exit System (EES), fully operational since April 10, 2026, applies to non-EU nationals traveling to the Schengen Area for short stays as visitors. Holders of a valid EU residence permit, such as a Portugal Golden Visa card, present that permit at the border and are not processed as short-stay visitors under EES. US citizens traveling as tourists without a residence permit are subject to EES registration at the border. ETIAS, scheduled for the last quarter of 2026, will require visa-free short-stay visitors, including US citizens, to obtain a travel authorization before departure, while residence permit holders remain exempt.

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Which European Countries Are Best For American Expats?

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The answer depends on each person’s goals. For full-time relocation, Portugal, Spain, and France are frequently cited for quality of life, safety, and infrastructure. For a residency and citizenship pathway without relocation, Portugal stands out. Its Golden Visa requires only the light stay requirement noted earlier, it ranks as the 7th safest country in the world according to the Global Peace Index 2025, and it offers a path to a highly ranked passport. Portugal welcomed a record 31 million visitors in 2024, highlighting its broad appeal.

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How Does The Portugal Golden Visa Compare To The D7 Visa?

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The two programs serve different profiles. The D7 Passive Income Visa requires the applicant to demonstrate stable passive income of at least €920 per month and to establish habitual residence in Portugal. It suits retirees or financially independent individuals who want to live in Portugal full-time. The Portugal Golden Visa requires a €500,000 investment in a qualifying regulated fund and only 14 days of physical presence in Portugal every two years. It is designed for investors who want a credible EU residency and citizenship pathway while keeping their current base. Both lead to permanent residency after five years and citizenship after the qualifying period, but the Portugal Golden Visa specifically targets investors who do not relocate full-time.

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Start your Portugal Golden Visa application with VIDA Capital.